Kurtis Yan is a first-year graduate student at Georgetown University’s Center for Security Studies. His studies focus on transnational crime, post-Soviet states, and international security. He can be reached at kurtisyan234@gmail.com. Divergent Options’ content does not contain information of an official nature nor does the content represent the official position of any government, any organization, or any group.

National Security Situation: The illicit poaching and trafficking of pangolin species continues to grow due to steady consumer demand for their derivatives, placing them under critical threat of extinction while promoting corruption in certain countries and weakening the enforcement of international agreements.

Date Originally Written: October 17, 2024

Date Originally Published: February 2, 2025

Author/Article Point of View: This article is written from the perspective of a graduate student at Georgetown University’s Center for Security Studies, who studied transnational crime and is especially interested in identifying methods to curb illicit wildlife poaching and trafficking.

Background: According to the International Fund for Animal Welfare, the pangolin is the most poached and trafficked mammal in the world [1]. Every year, approximately 200,000 pangolins are trafficked worldwide from Africa and Asia to supply demand primarily in East and Southeast Asian countries, such as China and Vietnam [2]. There are eight species of pangolin, with larger species, such as the ground pangolin, inhabiting Sub-Saharan Africa, while smaller species that prefer forest environments, such as the Sunda pangolin, can be found across Southeast Asia. Per the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES, all species are vulnerable or endangered due to loss of habitat and, above all, poaching [3]. Poachers seek these animals for their unique scales which, despite being made of keratin, are ground to make traditional East Asian medicines and accessories [4]. Additionally, pangolin meat serves as bushmeat in Africa and is considered a delicacy in East Asia.

Significance: Despite a nearly decades-old international ban on trading and selling pangolins, trafficking and poaching continue at high rates. In turn, the species’ numbers continue to dwindle. In a Namibian study, researchers found that a single pangolin can consume 70 million insects a year, controlling termite and ant populations which, if left unchecked, can deplete plant species that endemic herbivores consume [5]. Likewise, the loss of pangolin numbers not only puts regional biodiversity at risk, but also risks the loss of millions of dollars of agricultural crops to insects [5]. Though authorities continue seizing illegal shipments and uncovering big suppliers, tons of pangolin derivatives still reach illegal markets to feed popular demand [4]. The continued trafficking of pangolins undermines international agreements between CITES partner countries to enforce the ban and protect pangolin species. In particular, legal loopholes have allowed the illicit trade to continue sending pangolins to countries like China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam [6]. Further failures in local enforcement can weaken the integrity and perceived strength of international organizations and treaties. Moreover, the illicit poaching of pangolins paves the way for further natural resource exploitation while the trade ultimately encourages greater corruption among government and customs officials, which serves to normalize illicit economic activity within communities. As current international and domestic efforts primarily target the supply side with limited results, it may also be worthwhile to focus on directly limiting public demand for poached pangolins.

Option 1: Improving public awareness on the illicit trade and its consequences

Description: This option can take the form of educational events, publications, outreach with local non-profits, and coordination with both local and international officials. In doing so, the goal is to reduce demand for pangolin derivatives and discourage individuals from both purchasing and consuming in at-risk areas. Drawing on successful campaigns to limit ivory consumption and implement bans, poignant rhetoric must be coupled with compelling media productions of the pangolin’s plight, biodiversity value, and conservation successes. For instance, directed advertising with Chinese celebrities along with increased media engagement on elephant poaching proved crucial in appealing to potential Chinese buyers of ivory and those unaware of the 2017 domestic ban [7].

Risk: With aiming to rally public support, there is a risk of lag in achieving the desired results. It will likely prove difficult to quantitatively measure the impact of such campaigns and to convince stakeholders of the importance of engaging directly with the public. Furthermore, the lack of concrete data on the scale of the pangolin trade can hinder efforts to effectively convey the urgency of this threat.

Gain: This option allows for communities in areas with both high pangolin populations and demand to understand the importance of this keystone species and its conservation [8]. By educating potential consumers on the cruelty of pangolin exploitation, people can demonstrate their esteem for the species simply by refusing to purchase or sell pangolin products. The public can even report illicit pangolin trade activity to local authorities and place more pressure on officials to strengthen enforcement. As individuals become aware of the pangolins’ plight, a grassroots taboo around pangolin consumption can arouse societal support towards pangolin conservation groups, bolstering calls for stronger anti-poaching enforcement and ultimately expanding international cooperation on illegal trafficking.

Option 2: Farming and breeding schemes

Description: Breeding facilities and farms can be created to raise pangolins and harvest their derivatives without infringing on wild populations. This method aims to de-incentivize and reduce poaching for wild pangolins. Breeding farms have vastly multiplied endangered Siamese crocodile populations in Southeast Asia and, in turn, lowered local prices on crocodile derivatives [9].

Risk: Historically, conservationists and zookeepers have had difficulty keeping pangolins alive in captivity. Pangolins typically do poorly outside their natural habitat due to stress, improper diet, and vulnerability to disease, significantly shrinking their lifespan [10]. In that vein, pangolin farms would very likely encounter difficulties in raising the animal to maturity, and to compensate for low birth rates, mass efforts to capture and breed wild pangolins would likely do greater harm to population numbers. Thus, farm-based production on a large scale appears impractical. Moreover, experts predict that pangolin farming cannot meet the massive consumer demand for the animal’s derivatives [11]. As demonstrated in bear bile farms, consumers often prefer derivatives from animals raised and poached in their natural habitats [12]. As such, consumers are willing to pay higher prices for natural derivatives, and sellers understand the importance of peddling the natural quality of their product due to low price elasticity.

Gain: As with other examples of farm-based wildlife production, stakeholders can aim to reduce demand for wild pangolins. By providing this alternative source for pangolin derivatives, conservationists can hope to protect pangolin populations in Asia and Africa. Pangolin farming and increased supply of derivatives may also decrease their value, which is upheld by traditional beliefs, status, and mythical prestige.

Other Comments: Though the two options are not mutually exclusive, a normalization in pangolin farming would likely reduce the weight of conservation arguments and public outreach efforts. If the public sees that farming and mass breeding programs are acceptable, it becomes more challenging to convey the importance of protecting the species in its natural habitat.

Recommendations: None

Endnotes:

[1] IFAW. 2024. “Pangolins are the World’s Most Trafficked Mammals.” International Fund for Animal Welfare, June 13. https://www.ifaw.org/journal/faq-pangolins.

[2] Grein, Giavanna. 2024. “The Fight to Stop Pangolin Extinction.” World Wildlife Fund. https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/the-fight-to-stop-pangolin-extinction/.

[3] USAID. 2022. “Issue Brief: The Current Status and Conservation Options for Pangolins in West Africa.” Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. https://cites.org/sites/default/files/documents/E-CoP19-Inf-39.pdf.

[4] Alberts, Elizabeth Claire. 2020. “Did China Really Ban the Pangolin Trade? Not Quite, Investigators Say.” Mongabay, June 24. https://news.mongabay.com/2020/06/did-china-really-ban-the-pangolin-trade-not-quite-investigators-say/.

[5] AfriCat. 2024. “Pangolin Research.” Africat. https://africat.org/pangolin-research/.

[6] Scott, Russell and Emma Howard. 2020. “Even After a Global Ban, Pangolins are Still Legally Traded.” Unearthed, July 23. https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2020/07/23/pangolin-ban-legal-trade-cites-china-us/.

[7] Haas, Benjammin. 2017. “Under Pressure: The Story Behind China’s Ivory Ban.” The Guardian, August 29. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/29/story-behind-china-ivory-ban.

[8] “Pangolin Conservation.” Save Pangolins, 2024. https://www.savepangolins.org/conservation.

[9] Ghosal, Aniruddha and Anton L. Delgaado. 2024. “ How a Nearly Extinct Crocodile Species Returned from the Brink in Cambodia.” Associated Press, Oct. 23. https://apnews.com/article/cambodia-siamese-crocodiles-conservation-24fba9b95b83c08e5773b83bde942fd1.

[10] Lombardi, Linda. 2018. “US Zoos Learn how to Keep Captive Pangolins Alive, Helping Wild Ones.” Mongabay, January  5. https://news.mongabay.com/2018/01/u-s-zoos-learn-how-to-keep-captive-pangolins-alive-helping-wild-ones/.

[11] EIA. 2019. “Commercial Pangolin Farming Will Very Likely have a Negative Impact on Pangolin Conservation.” Environmental Investigative Agency, July 30. https://eia-international.org/news/commercial-pangolin-farming-will-very-likely-have-a-negative-impact-on-pangolin-conservation/.

[12] Dutton, Adam J., Cameron Hepburn and David W. Macdonald. 2011. “A Stated Preference Investigation into the Chinese Demand for Farmed vs. Wild Bear Bile.” PLoS ONE 6 (7): 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021243.